By Mia Hartley

With more than four thousand years of recorded history, China is the world's oldest continuous civilisation. While the world recognises the gravitas of Confucianism and Taoism, the intellectual vibrancy of ancient China extends far beyond these renowned philosophies of the ancient world. During the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE) and the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), China experienced a philosophical renaissance known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought."

This intellectual flowering birthed a constellation of philosophies, each grappling with questions of ethics, governance, and the natural order. Here is a primer on the lesser-known Chinese philosophies that flourished during the same time as the Greek empire and how they manifest in modern times.

The Naturalists and the Yin-Yang School

Core Principles: The Chinese School of Naturalists, often associated with the Yin-Yang School, emphasized the harmony of opposites and the dynamic interplay of natural forces. At its heart were the concepts of Yin (passive, dark, feminine) and Yang (active, light, masculine), which together explained natural phenomena and human behavior. This philosophy viewed the universe as a web of interconnected elements, where balance was essential for harmony. The Naturalists also stressed observing patterns in nature—from celestial movements to seasonal cycles—to align human activities with the cosmic order. Such alignment was believed to foster prosperity and reduce chaos.

Prominent Figures: Zou Yan, a prominent thinker of the 3rd century BCE, is often credited as a key figure in the development of the Yin-Yang School.

Major Works: While no singular texts dominate this school, its ideas permeate foundational Chinese works, including the I Ching (Book of Changes), a manual of divination based on Yin-Yang principles.

Modern Relevance: Yin-Yang principles continue to influence Chinese medicine, martial arts, and Feng Shui, underscoring their enduring legacy in the holistic understanding of balance and harmony.

Mohism

Core Principles: Founded by Mozi (Mo Di) in the 5th century BCE, Mohism advocated for jian ai (impartial love), a radical idea that all people should be treated with equal care and concern, regardless of familial or social ties. Mohists believed this principle of universal love was the foundation for societal harmony and justice. They opposed the Confucian emphasis on hierarchical relationships and rituals, arguing that such practices fostered favoritism and inequality. In addition to ethical teachings, Mohism emphasized frugality and utilitarian governance, arguing that policies should benefit the greatest number of people. Mohists also championed defensive military techniques and rational argumentation, blending practicality with their moral ideals.

Prominent Figures: Mozi is the central figure, and his followers, the Mohists, created a disciplined, almost militaristic order to spread his teachings.

Major Works: The Mozi, a compilation of Mozi’s ideas, explores ethics, logic, and governance.

Modern Relevance: While Mohism faded after the Han dynasty, its principles of universal love and merit-based governance echo in modern discussions of equality and utilitarianism.

Legalism

Core Principles: Legalism, or Fajia, was a pragmatic philosophy emphasizing law and order above morality or ritual. Legalists held that human nature is inherently self-interested and that strong governance requires a clear and enforceable system of laws. They believed that rewards and punishments should be unambiguous, swift, and strictly enforced to ensure compliance. Unlike Confucianism, which sought to cultivate virtue, Legalism focused on creating institutions that minimized the potential for disorder. Legalists argued that the state’s power should supersede individual rights, prioritizing collective stability over personal freedoms. This school also underscored the importance of centralized authority and bureaucratic efficiency in achieving social order.

Prominent Figures: Shang Yang, Han Fei, and Li Si were prominent architects of Legalism, which played a central role in the Qin dynasty’s unification of China.

Major Works: The Han Feizi is a foundational text outlining the philosophy's tenets.

Modern Relevance: Though criticized for its rigidity, Legalism's emphasis on institutional strength and rule of law has influenced governance practices in modern China.

Yangism

Core Principles: Attributed to Yang Zhu, Yangism championed individualism and self-preservation, asserting that personal well-being and avoidance of harm should be one’s primary goals. Yangists rejected societal obligations and altruism, arguing that these pursuits often led to unnecessary suffering and self-sacrifice. Instead, they believed that life’s highest value lay in personal happiness and freedom from external interference. This philosophy encouraged individuals to embrace their natural instincts and avoid being constrained by social expectations or moralistic doctrines. Yangism’s emphasis on autonomy and personal satisfaction positioned it as a stark contrast to both Confucianism and Mohism.

Prominent Figures: Yang Zhu, a contemporary of Mozi and Confucius, is the enigmatic figure behind this school of thought.

Major Works: Yangism survives only through critiques in the works of others, such as Mencius, who saw it as excessively self-centered.

Modern Relevance: Yangism’s focus on personal agency and individual rights resonates in contemporary discussions of libertarianism and self-care.

The Logicians

Core Principles: Known as the School of Names, the Logicians engaged in philosophical debates about language, logic, and epistemology. They explored paradoxes, the relationship between words and reality, and the nature of knowledge itself. Logicians believed that clear definitions and precise language were essential for rational thought and effective communication. They delved into problems of categorization, identity, and contradiction, often using clever arguments to challenge conventional wisdom. Their work sought to uncover the limitations and potential of human reasoning, emphasizing intellectual rigor over practical application.

Prominent Figures: Gongsun Long and Hui Shi were prominent Logicians. Gongsun Long’s famous assertion, “A white horse is not a horse,” illustrates their interest in linguistic precision.

Major Works: Their fragmented texts survive through references in later works.

Modern Relevance: While the Logicians faded from prominence, their explorations of logic and semantics offer parallels to Western analytical philosophy and contemporary linguistic theory.

The Agrarians

Core Principles: The Agrarian school, or Nongjia, emphasized agricultural collectivism as the foundation of a stable society. It viewed farming as the most virtuous and fundamental human activity, advocating for policies that prioritized agrarian life over commerce or warfare. Agrarians believed that social harmony could be achieved through equitable land distribution and communal farming practices. They also opposed excessive taxation and exploitation of farmers, arguing that the health of the state depended on the well-being of its agricultural base. The Agrarians’ vision was one of simplicity, self-sufficiency, and close adherence to the rhythms of nature.

Prominent Figures: Xu Xing is the most notable proponent of Agrarian thought, though much about the school remains obscure.

Major Works: Like Yangism, the Agrarian school is known largely through the critiques of other thinkers.

Modern Relevance: Agrarian ideals of communal farming and sustainable living echo in modern environmental movements and discussions of food security.

The Legacy of Forgotten Wisdom

These lesser-known schools of thought reveal the richness of ancient Chinese philosophy, offering a kaleidoscope of perspectives on ethics, governance, and human nature. While Confucianism and Taoism dominate, the philosophies of the Mohists, Legalists, Naturalists, and others underscore the diversity of ideas that shaped China’s intellectual heritage.

In a modern world grappling with questions of equity, sustainability, and governance, these philosophies offer more than historical curiosity—they provide timeless insights. Whether through the Mohist call for impartiality, the Legalist focus on systems, or the Naturalist pursuit of balance, these ancient ideas continue to speak to the challenges and aspirations of our age.

Want to Learn more? My sources are your sources (except for the confidential ones): Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Yin-Yang School, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Mohism, World History Encyclopedia - Legalism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Yangism, Cambridge University Press - The Logicians in Ancient China, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Agrarian School, Britannica - Hundred Schools of Thought